Informational Graphics and Sign Systems
as Library Instruction Media
by John Kupersmith
Drexel Library Quarterly 16 (January 1980), 54-68.
© 1981 School of Library and Information Science, Drexel University.
Posted on WWW with their permission. Fair use (e.g., for individual
research or classwork) is encouraged.
ABSTRACT
This article discusses signs and graphics in the library building
as tools for communicating with users. It reviews typical approaches
to signage in libraries, describes the objectives and components of
sign systems, and outlines a method for designing and developing an
effective system. It was written in 1980; because the same principles
apply remarkably well in 2008, the text has not been modernized to
reflect changes in library buildings and technology. Following
the text and notes is an additional bibliography listing more
recently published items.
(reproduced with permission)
Informational graphics and sign systems are among the most
basic, and at the same time most indispensable, forms of
library instruction. Like other media employed to educate the
library user, they derive their importance and usefulness from
the needs that users experience as they search for information.
The same kinds of analysis and objective-setting that go into
the planning of a class lecture or an audiovisual presentation
can and should be applied in designing effective graphics, from
a single information display to a comprehensive sign system.
Every person who enters a library building in search of
information must deal with the library's physical environment
throughout the search process. [1] This environment is the
medium through which the user moves, and it is also a source
of informational cues that he/she uses in making a series of
wayfinding choices ("Which way is the catalog?") and strategic
choices ("Does this catalog list periodicals?"). Every user
receives cues from the environment; this is true whether
these cues are planned or unplanned, consistent or random,
helpful or confusing. Whether the environment will be an aid
or an obstacle to the user depends upon the extent to which
the library acts to shape its environment as an instructional
tool.
APPROACHES
Signing practices in libraries vary widely, running the gamut
from conservative to activist, sometimes guided by written
policies and sometimes not. The basic approaches most
commonly taken by libraries in dealing with the need for
informational graphics are discussed below.
Prohibition
Some libraries, attempting perhaps to preserve an atmosphere
of dignity in keeping with the traditionally monumental nature
of library architecture, simply avoid posting signs altogether.
If strictly enforced, this method creates an informational
desert in which library users have to find their own oases--
usually by asking the staff what may seem like an endless
series of redundant directional questions.
Laissez-faire Approach
Many libraries make no attempt at sign control in either a
positive or a negative sense, leaving the staff free to put up
whatever signs they wish. Although the resulting signs are
likely to respond to actual user needs as perceived by the
staff, the disadvantages of this method make it an unwise
choice. Because the signs are put up on an ad hoc basis, and
often in haste, they tend to cluster around public service
desks, reflecting the problems that arise there without
addressing the user's need to make choices in more remote
parts of the building. Because there is no overall planning,
the information presented may be inconsistent, and outdated
signs may not be removed. Because the materials and
techniques used are generally not suitable for the purpose,
the signs tend to be illegible from more than a few feet and to
deteriorate quickly. A conglomeration of such unplanned
signs, besides being informationally confusing, can project an
offhand, amateurish impression that benefits neither the user
nor the library.
"Sign System" Method
As an alternative to these approaches, a library may take
action to develop a unified sign system. In a recent survey by
the Association of Research Libraries, 37 of 68 responding
institutions indicated that they had done so.[2] While the
specific aims, components, and costs of sign systems vary
widely, the crucial and distinctive element in this approach is
planning. Because the design process is based on a careful
analysis of user needs, the resulting system can address
those needs on a library-wide basis. Because terminology,
layout, color, and other design elements are standardized,
informational consistency as well as speed and economy in
producing new signs can be achieved. Because a properly
prepared system incorporates durable materials, changeable
features, and a maintenance manual, its effectiveness can be
constant over a long period of time.
A comprehensive system, consisting of a number of related
components (see Figure 1), can influence library users'
perceptions and behavior in several ways. As user efficiency
increases, the proportion of simple directional questions
asked at service desks may decrease, thereby freeing the
staff to deal with more substantive inquiries and possibly
improving staff morale.[3] As users become more aware of the
full range of services and facilities available to them, use may
increase in some areas.[4] Equally important is the synergistic
effect of a sign system. When the various parts of the system
work together, users--even those with complex tasks to
perform--can find their way in the library as they do in other
signed environments, such as airports or hospitals, looking
for and receiving an orderly series of cues. This effect creates
an overall impression of the institution from which libraries
clearly have much to gain, whether this is called public relations,
corporate identity, or simply a professional appearance.
Figure 1. Some components of a hypothetical sign
system, shown together for comparison. From left:
main lobby directory; movable/changeable floor sign;
directional sign; room identification sign; major
identification sign; point-of-use instructional aid.
OBJECTIVES
As with other media used in library instruction, the design of
informational graphics involves two basic tasks. The first is to
define the desired user behavior or knowledge at a given step
in the search process--and, in this case, at a given location
within the library building. The second task is to select and
develop the best possible means of encouraging that behavior
or communicating that knowledge. This fundamental design
sequence applies to decisions affecting the entire sign system
as well as to those dealing with individual components.
Thus, the behavioral and cognitive objectives of the system
determine what kinds of signs and displays will be used and
how they are to function. While any such project necessarily
involves a unique set of problems and solutions, the most
common objectives of comprehensive sign systems can be
grouped into six general categories: orientation, direction,
identification, instruction, regulation, and current awareness.[5]
These broad objectives are discussed below along with the
means that might be used to achieve them. Only interior signs
are covered, although signs outside the library (e.g., directional,
identifying) are often necessary as well.
Orientation
A user entering the library or moving from one area to another
needs to identify and select relevant resources and establish
their general locations within the building. The sign system
should respond to the user's need to progress from general to
specific information during this process. Such a system might
include several types of orientation displays:
- Main lobby directories listing library resources, areas, and
services and relating them to a building map.
- Displays in specific areas, such as elevator lobbies on stack
floors, providing more detailed orientation to these areas.
- Self-guided tours, in printed or cassette form, keyed to
marked locations in the building.
Direction
The user needs to make correct wayfinding decisions as he/she
moves along the route from starting point to destination.
This process demands careful attention in libraries where
resources are spread out or architecturally hidden, and where
the user often has a series of tasks to perform. The system
should provide:
- Directional signs placed at decision points, i.e., wherever
significant numbers of users have to make wayfinding
choices or change direction.
Identification
The user (who may not be able to distinguish one library
resource, tool, or service point from another based on
appearance alone) needs to recognize his/her destination upon
arrival. Since some destinations are more heavily used or
must be seen from farther away than others, identification
signs are usually designed in a hierarchy of sign sizes or
type sizes. These consist of:
- Large signs, supergraphics, or color coding to mark major
areas.
- Signs giving numbers and names of individual rooms and
offices.
- Signs identifying special facilities for handicapped users.
- Signs identifying specific library tools; these may also display
instructional information as discussed below.
- Stack end labels and other signs identifying particular parts
of the library collection.
Instruction
The user, having arrived at a particular resource, needs to
know what to expect from it and how to use it effectively. The
aim here is to present basic information as clearly as possible,
reinforcing what the user may have learned about search
strategy through other forms of library instruction, and, where
appropriate, reminding the user that the staff is available for
further assistance. The following devices might be used for
instructional purposes:
- Information displays at major tools--card catalogs, public-
access computer terminals, and reference sources or groups
of sources such as periodical indexes. This type of display
is especially important with the advent of COM and on-line
catalogs, computerized literature searching, and other
developments requiring significant changes in user behavior.
- Point-of-use presentations, in audiovisual or printed form,
coordinated with the graphics in design, content, and
placement.
- Displays designed to give an overall view of search strategy
or library procedures; these are less common than the above
but certainly possible.
- Signs explaining specific procedures at circulation desks and
similar locations, as needed.
- Exhibits calling attention to particular library resources.
- Suggestion/response boards, an excellent communications
tool that can incorporate graphic elements consistent with
the rest of the system.
Regulation
The user needs to know what behavior is forbidden, permitted,
or required in a particular area or situation. With careful
planning, a library can often reduce the number of regulatory
signs while at the same time clarifying their messages. The
use of symbols, color, size, or placement to distinguish
regulatory signs from other signs should be considered.
Several regulatory messages are commonly required:
- Signs regarding smoking, food/beverages, noise, and security
procedures.
- Signs showing fire exit routes, emergency procedures,
meeting room capacities, or other information required by
building codes.
- Copyright notices posted at copy machines.
Current Awareness
The user needs to know about temporary conditions or
changes in the library that might affect his/her tasks, as well
as library hours, special events, and similar information. This
objective can be achieved through making parts of the system
changeable and the current information recognizable as such.
The following means should be considered:
- Bulletin boards for posting of current information, located in
high traffic areas, perhaps on or near the major orientation
directories.
- A consistent format for library notices so that users will
recognize them at once.
- Provision for listing "Changes" on or adjacent to library
floor plans and directories.
- Posting of explanatory notices at locations in the building
where changes (e.g., shifting of books) are taking place.
- Incorporation of changeable text strips or panels into signs
and displays where information is likely to change frequently.
DESIGNING AN EFFECTIVE SYSTEM
Since the effectiveness of graphics depends upon proper
placement, lighting, and relationship to other architectural
elements, the opportunity to include plans for a sign system
as part of the design for a new library building should not be
missed.[6] Although it may be impossible to specify every sign
that will be needed until the new facility is actually in operation,
the need for graphics can be indicated in the building
program and the basic design and major components of the
system can be developed as part of the interior design and
space planning process.[7]
Many library sign projects, however, take place in existing
buildings that have been inadequately signed or not signed at
all. This situation presents a special challenge, since the
system must be designed to adapt to--and sometimes to
clarify for users--the building's idiosyncrasies. Some changes
in the building itself, such as removal of old signs, repainting
of some areas, or building of special structures for major
signs and directories, may also be necessary. On the other
hand, this situation also presents a special advantage in that
user behavior is a known factor that can be studied in
advance and taken into account in the design process.
A sign system is the product of decisions made by a planning
group that may include representatives of the library's governing
authority, of the library administration, of the staff (particularly
those concerned with public services), and of any library units
especially affected, as well as the building superintendent.
If the project requires the expertise of a professional design
consultant, this person's involvement should begin with the
initial stages of planning.[8] In addition, the entire library staff,
and possibly members of the user community, may be involved
at some stages. Success in this complex undertaking is most likely
if all parties share a common understanding of the scope
and objectives of the project, and if good communications are
maintained throughout. The following discussion focuses on
those aspects of the design process that are most critical in
determining the system's instructional value.[9]
Figure 2. Phases in a typical design project.
Of all the phases in a normal design project (see Figure 2),
the initial Research/Analysis phase demands the most time
and attention from the library staff. Several developments at
this stage can "make or break" the system as an instructional
device. The planning group must first gather as much
information as possible about user behavior and needs, whether
from existing library use statistics and user studies or from
studies done specifically for the project. The latter might
include observations of actual user behavior and traffic flow,
staged problem-solving exercises, or a survey of users
through interviews or a questionnaire. Whether or not the
resources to conduct such studies are available, the library
staff--particularly those who deal most with the public, such
as service desk staff and stack attendants--can and should
be consulted for their knowledge of user needs.
Another critical task in this phase is to gather and edit the
information to be presented through the system. Much of this
information can be assembled from existing floor plans, lists
of rooms and other resources, stack location directories, staff
rosters, and other readily available sources. The editing
process, however, may pose some complexities. Because a
sign system demands a high degree of consistency, some
libraries may at this point have to choose between functional
and memorial names for certain rooms, select the most
readily understandable of several common designations for
the card catalog, or make other similar decisions. What
emerges will be, in effect, a controlled vocabulary of terms
which the library uses to identify its own resources. Moreover,
standardized and simplified explanations of various library
procedures will also have to be developed. In the course of
codifying this information, the staff may discover that it
makes more sense to streamline or otherwise change some
procedures than to present them in their traditional forms.
For example, if discrepancies or unneeded complexities are
revealed in the course of formally articulating a library's
circulation rules, revision of these items can be a valuable
by-product of the design process.[10]
When the desired information has been gathered and organized,
the Schematic Design phase can begin. In this phase, the designer
works to identify the best means of displaying the various pieces
of information at the point of need. Elements to be developed
and presented to the library staff for approval generally include:
overall design (the system's unifying principles and a description
of all related components); graphic standards (typography, colors,
layout, and other characteristics); informational standards
(terminology, abbreviations, and syntax to be used on signs);
and structural standards (materials, construction, and placement
of signs). Since decisions made on each of these points will
affect the system's instructional function, the library staff
should carefully evaluate the design and conduct whatever on-site
tests may be necessary to ascertain that the proposed solutions
will actually work.
The third and fourth phases, Design Development and
Fabrication/lnstallation, build upon decisions that have
already been made. The designs for the system are translated
into working drawings and specifications; the "sign schedule"
(a detailed, sign-by-sign list keyed to locations in the building)
is prepared; the contract for the project is awarded; and the
system is manufactured and installed.
The final phase, Maintenance, is an ongoing process, not only
of keeping the signs clean and in good repair, but also of
seeing that the system continues to display accurate information
and that any new or revised signs conform to the original
design standards. If some measure of control is not achieved,
the resulting inconsistency in form or content will detract
from the system's effectiveness, just as inconsistency detracts
from the effectiveness of a lecture, an audiovisual
presentation, or any other instructional device. A sign manual
for the staff to use in maintaining the system and ordering or
producing new signs, and clearly defined responsibilities and
procedures for carrying out these tasks, are the keys to
ensuring consistency over time. Updating the information
displayed to users through signs and graphics should be
treated as one of the library's basic instructional services.
Evaluation is as essential to sign systems as it is to other
forms of library instruction.[11] Data on the system's
effectiveness can be gathered through a variety of methods,
ranging from relatively simple procedures, such as counting
directional questions or recording relevant comments from
a user suggestion box, to more sophisticated techniques, such
as actively surveying users or systematically observing their
wayfinding behavior. Comparable data gathered before the
system is installed will likely prove very useful, as will a set
of measurable objectives for various parts and functions of
the system. As in other instructional situations, evaluation
should be used as an indicator of, and stimulus to, any
necessary modifications in the system.
INTEGRATING GRAPHICS
WITH OTHER FORMS OF INSTRUCTION
As the foregoing discussion suggests, informational graphics
and sign systems can play an important role in educating the
library user. They are "on the job" any time the library is
open, reaching even those users who have had no other
instruction. They can perform a number of functions, from
orienting users to the library's resources and services to
presenting specific instructional information at the point of
need. They can affect the kinds of interactions users have
with the staff and the ways in which users perceive the library
itself.
The consequences of overreliance on signs and graphics,
however, may be just as serious as the consequences of
neglect. Signs cannot convey the subtleties of reference
sources or the conceptual framework necessary for successful
research as effectively as a well-planned bibliographic
instruction session. They cannot involve the user in an active
role as effectively as exercises, workbooks, or interactive
computer programs. They cannot serve as portable reference
aids as effectively as printed guides and bibliographies. Their
role is different from--and complementary to--those of the
other media.[12]
Thus, no instructional medium should be seen as a substitute
for the others; especially when staff time and resources are at
a premium, all applicable media should be designed to work
together for maximum effect. A sign system can provide the
reinforcement that links the conceptual and factual content of
bibliographic instruction to the library environment in which
the user must actually operate from day to day. If the graphics
incorporate elements of form, content, and terminology that
also occur in the library's verbal, audiovisual, and printed
instructional presentations, the user will be encouraged to
remember and apply what he/she has learned. The only way
to achieve this synergistic effect, other than by chance, is
through a unified design program that recognizes the proper
function of each medium.
CURRENT TRENDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The current interest among librarians in informational
graphics and sign systems is traceable to a number of trends
both within and outside the profession. Over the past two
decades, librarians have become more and more concerned
with user behavior, with the interface between user and library,
and consequently with various forms of library instruction.
Problems of scale resulting from large user populations
and limited budgets have led some librarians, particularly in
university settings, to concentrate on media and methods that
enable them to reach as many users as possible with basic
library information. At the same time, designers have given
increasing attention to the need for informational graphics in
public buildings; both the professional practice of sign design
and the technology available for sign construction have
gained in sophistication. The confluence of these trends has
led to a number of relevant conferences, to the publication of
some useful literature[13] and even to official recognition in
the form of a recently established Library of Congress subject
heading "Library signs." Although published information on
the number and quality of actual library sign projects is
scant, these phenomena indicate that both are on the rise.
There is a need for further research and communication in the
evolving field of library graphics. A number of developments
(some already in progress) that would advance the "state of
the art" are listed below:
- Systematic research on the effectiveness of various forms of
information display in library settings, including "before-and-
after" studies by libraries installing sign systems.[14]
- Public documentation of existing sign programs (including
both successful and unsuccessful aspects), through the
literature and through clearinghouses, such as LOEX and its
regional and state counterparts.[15]
- Widespread dissemination to librarians of information on how
to produce or purchase signs that are both professional in
appearance and low in cost.
- Coverage of in-house and commercial sign production
methods in library school audiovisual media courses.
- Workshops and conferences bringing librarians and designers
together to foster communication on signing problems and
solutions.
- Consideration of sign system designs as part of critiques of
library building projects.
- Inclusion of basic guidelines for adequate informational
graphics in published standards for all types of libraries.
The most fundamental need, of course, is for individual
librarians and library staffs to undertake the task mentioned
at the beginning of this article--that of shaping the library
environment as an instructional tool. Those who do will find
that both they and their users will benefit from the effort.
NOTES
[1] For a more detailed treatment, see the first two chapters in Sign
Systems for Libraries: Solving the Wayfinding Problem, ed. Dorothy
Pollet and Peter Haskell (New York: Bowker, 1979). These are: Ross J.
Loomis and Margaret B. Parsons, "Orientation Needs and the Library
Setting," pp. 3-15; Roger M. Downs, "Mazes, Minds, and Maps,"
pp. 17-32.
[2] Association of Research Libraries. Office of Management Studies,
Systems and Procedures Exchange Center, "External Communication
in ARL Libraries," SPEC Flyer #56 (July-August 1979).
[3] Mary Seng, "Reference Service Upgraded Using Patrons' Reference
Questions," Special Libraries 69 (January 1978): 21-8; Herbert Spencer
and Linda Reynolds, Directional Signing and Labelling in Libraries
and Museums: A Review of Current Theory and Practice (London:
Readability of Print Research Unit, Royal College of Art, 1977),
pp. 8-9.
[4] Nancy Fjallbrant and Malcolm Stevenson, User Education in
Libraries (London: Clive Bingley and Hamden, CT: Linnet Books, 1978),
p. 149; see also pp. 11-12, 43, 69, 100, 151-2.
[5] Lists of sign categories are common in the literature; for an
unusually thorough discussion, see Spencer and Reynolds, pp. 65-74
(see note 3).
[6] For an instructive example, see Stephen Langmead and Margaret
Beckman, New Library Design: Guide Lines to Planning Academic
Library Buildings (Toronto: John Wiley and Sons Canada, 1970),
pp. 66-8, 80-1, 118ff.
[7] "Color and Signage" are discussed in Aaron Cohen and Elaine
Cohen, Designing and Space Planning for Libraries: A Behavioral
Guide (New York: Bowker, 1979), pp. 183-212.
[8] For an interview with a design consultant, see Dorothy Pollet,
"You Can Get There from Here: New Directions in Library Signage," Wilson
Library Bulletin 50 (February 1976): 456-62; for further discussion,
see John Kupersmith, "The Role of the Design Consultant," in Sign
Systems for Libraries, pp. 69-78.
[9] A detailed account of the design process appears in Katherine M.
Selfridge, "Planning Library Signage Systems," in Sign Systems for
Libraries, pp. 49-67.
[10] For an interesting discussion of "User Education and Its Integration
into the Functioning of the Academic Library," see Fjallbrant and
Stevenson, pp. 141-9.
[11] John Lubans, Jr. and Gary Kushner, "Evaluating Signage Systems
in Libraries," in Sign Systems for Libraries, pp. 115-23.
[12] A useful list of the pros and cons of various modes of instruction,
unfortunately not including graphics, appears in: Association of
College and Research Libraries, Bibliographic Instruction Section,
Policy and Planning Committee, Bibliographic Instruction Handbook
(Chicago: The Association, 1979), pp. 46-55.
[13] In addition to the sources cited above, see Crosby/Fletcher/
Forbes, A Sign Systems Manual (London: Studio Vista, 1970); John
Follis and Dave Hammer, Architectural Signing and Graphics (New
York: Whitney Library of Design, 1979); and Wayne Kosterman, "A
Guide to Library Environmental Graphics," Library Technology Reports
14 (May-June 1978): 269-95, partially reprinted as "Sign Materials and
Methods" in Sign Systems for Libraries, pp. 79-87. An excellent
"Annotated Bibliography on Visual Guidance Systems," by William W.
Prince, appears in Sign Systems for Libraries, pp. 243-58.
[14] For a much more complete list of possible research topics, see
Spencer and Reynolds, pp. 10-11 (see note 3).
[15] A notable example is Marvin E. Wiggins and McRay Magleby,
"A Signage System for a University Library," in Sign Systems for
Libraries, pp. 149-59.
ADDITIONAL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note: This bibliography is not being regularly updated,
but .
American Institute of Graphic Arts.
Symbol Signs.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, 1974.
Andretta, Susie.
"Visual Literacy."
Library + Information Update 3 (April 2004), 26-27.
Association of Research Libraries.
Effective Library Signage (SPEC Kit 208).
Washington, DC: 1995. Includes sample materials.
Beck, S.G.
"Wayfinding in Libraries."
Library Hi Tech 14 (1996), 27-36.
Benedict, Marjorie A.
Library Signs and the Disabled.
ERIC Document ED221162, 1979.
Bosman, Ellen and Carol Rusinek.
"Creating the User-Friendly Library in Evaluating
Patron Perceptions of Signage."
Reference Services Review 25 (Spring 1997), 71-82.
An earlier version, with an extensive bibliography and links,
is available on the web.
Carey, R.J.P.
Library Guiding: A Program for Exploiting Library Resources.
London: Clive Bingley, 1974.
Cohen, Aaron and Elaine Cohen.
Designing and Space Planning for Libraries: A Behavioral Guide.
New York: R.R. Bowker, 1979.
Crosby/Fletcher/Forbes.
A Sign Systems Manual.
London: Studio Vista, 1970.
Dempsey, Beth.
"Wayfinding in Action."
Library by Design supplement to
Library Journal, 131 (2006), 14-15.
Eaton, Gale, Michael Vocino, and Melanie Taylor.
"Evaluating Signs in a University Library."
Collection Management 16 (1992), 81-101.
Eaton, Gale.
"Wayfinding in a Library: Book Searches and Route Uncertainty."
RQ 30 (Summer 1991), 519-527.
Follis, John and Dave Hammer.
Architectural Signing and Graphics.
New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1979.
Johnson, C.
"Signs of the Times: Signage in the Library."
Wilson Library Bulletin 68 (November 1993), 40-42.
Johnson, Johanna.
Signs and Guides: Wayfinding Alternatives for the EMS Library.
MLS thesis: UCLA, 1981.
ERIC document # ED217840.
Kinder, J; Eckman, C.
"Where Do I Go From Here?"
College and Research Libraries News 54 (1993), 79-80.
Kosterman, Wayne.
"A Guide to Library Environmental Graphics."
Library Technology Reports 14 (May-June 1978): 269-95.
Kupersmith, John.
"The Graphic Approach," quarterly column in
Research Strategies; 23 installments (Winter 1983 - Summer 1988).
Kupersmith, John.
"Informational Graphics and Sign Systems as Library Instruction Media."
Drexel Library Quarterly 16 (January 1980), 54-68.
Mallery, Mary S. and Ralph E. DeVore.
A Sign System for Libraries.
Chicago: American Library Association, 1982.
O'Neill, Michael J.
"Effects of Signage and Floor Plan Configuration on Wayfinding Accuracy."
Environment and Behavior 23 (September 1991), 553-574.
Piech, Carlo R.; Delmont, Mary K.; Newman, G Charles.
"Butler Library Displays Vital Signs."
College and Research Libraries News 47 (June 1986), 379-381.
Pollet, Dorothy.
"You Can Get There From Here: New Directions in Library Signage."
Wilson Library Bulletin 50 (February 1976): 456-62.
Pollet, Dorothy and Peter Haskell, eds.
Sign Systems for Libraries: Solving the Wayfinding Problem.
New York: R.R. Bowker, 1979.
Reynolds, Linda and Stephen Barrett.
Signs and Guiding for Libraries.
London: Clive Bingley, 1981.
Ridgeway, Trish.
Library Orientation Methods, Mental Maps, and Public Services Planning.
Rock Hill, SC: Winthrop College, 1983.
ERIC document #ED 247942.
SignWeb
(signage industry web site)
http://www.signweb.com/
Spencer, Herbert and Linda Reynolds.
Directional Signing and Labelling in Libraries and Museums:
A Review of Current Theory and Practice.
[London:] Readability of Print Research Unit, Royal College of Art, 1977.
Stanley, John.
"Signs: Dos and DonŐts."
Library +Information Update 3 (April 2004), 25.
Swart, I.
"Library Signage."
Cape Librarian 35 (March 91), 12-13.
Van Allen, Peter, Sr.
"A Good Library Sign System: Is It Possible?"
Reference Services Review 12 (Summer 1984), 102-106.
Wurman, Richard Saul.
Information Architects.
Zurich: Graphis Press, 1996.
Yeaman, Andrew.
"Lost in the Information Supermarket."
Wilson Library Bulletin (December 1989): 42-46, 89.
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